Caleb

Facts About Mars You Need to Know in Order to be Able to Send a Rover to Mars
__Mars Fact Sheet__
 * Mars is the fourth closest planet to the sun and is a terrestrial, or rocky, planet.
 * Mars is about half the size of the Earth but has about the same land surface due to the fact that around 2/3 of the Earth’s surface is covered in water, while none of Mars’ surface is covered in water.
 * Mars has a similar tilt in its axis to Earth and has strong seasons like Earth because of that
 * Mars has to moons, Phobos and Deimos.
 * Mars has large sustained polar ice caps at its poles.
 * These polar caps are made of frozen water and carbon dioxide.
 * Enough water in southern ice cap alone to cover the entire planet in 11ft of water.
 * Mars has 38% of the gravity of Earth.
 * Mars gets 44% of the amount of sunlight that Earth gets.
 * Mars’ temperature can vary from -125 °C to 25 °C.
 * Landscape has hundreds of thousands of craters caused by impacts (mostly in southern hemisphere).
 * The surface pressure of Mars is about 1/100th of Earth’s surface pressure.
 * The Borealis Basin (a crater) covers about 40% of Mars’ surface.
 * Mars has many colossal mountains, including the Olympus Mons volcanic mountain that is 27 km tall.
 * Hohmann transfer orbits can shorten the fuel needed to travel to Mars, but will increase the time it takes to get there.
 * It takes approximately 214 Earth days to travel to Mars.
 * Mars has a different type of magnetic field than Earth
 * Some scientists think that Mars may have once had a magnetic field like Earth, but that it faded over time
 * Needs to be rust proof as mar's atmosphere contains trace amounts of oxygen which will oxidize iron
 * Mars' surface is covered in craters, need a smooth landing site
 * Need to know Mars' orbit in order to line up with it
 * Mars has huge dust storms that could damage rover, need to be able to withstand lots of dust
 * Mars' has seasons due to tilt, need to point rover at sun in order to collect solar energy
 * Need to store energy for winter
 * Mars is cold (-125 °C to 25 °C) so rover needs to withstand cold temperatures
 * Need to launch when planets are close so we don't need as much rocket fuel
 * Mars has two moon so stay clear of them
 * Rover needs to be able to steer around terrain; able to move over rocky and sandy surface
 * Launch window occurs every two years
 * Need to launch rocket to where the rocket will arrive at Mars

//Ms. Mc: Good facts about Mars and its conditions! Needed to relate fact to either getting a rover to Mars or having it work on its surface (-1/2). Good additions from class discussion too. 9.5/10//

[[image:cascience7-2012/chn_chinese_fire_arrows.jpg width="161" height="52" caption="Figure #1: Chinese "Fire Arrows""]]
__A Brief History of the Science of Rocketry__ The first true engine was made in Ancient Greece, around 100 B.C. It was named the Hero Engine after its creator, Hero of Alexandria. The hero engine spun because of a fire which caused water to turn into steam, which then was forced to travel out of two tubes, which then caused the body of the engine to turn. The Chinese, however, created the first true rocket, after realizing that the explosive-filled tubes they used in ceremonies could also be used to propel and object. They used these rockets in a variety of ways. At first, they attached small rockets to arrows and launched them with bows, although they soon realized that they could launch themselves. In 1232, the Chinese also used a form of rocket they called “arrows of flying fire” in a battle against the Mongols. They probably were not very destructive, but it is thought that they must have had an extreme physiological effect on the soldiers. In 1898, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky suggested that rockets could be used for space exploration. He also suggested the idea of using liquid propellants for fuel, which would allow the rockets to have a longer range. Robert H. Goodard agreed with Tsiolkovsky, and launcehed the first successful liquid powered rocket on March 16, 1926. This was significant because it proved that it was possible to use liquid fuels in rocketry. In World War Two, the Germans decided to use rockets for military purposes. The Verein fur Raumschiffahry (Society for Space Travel) in Germany developed the V-2 rocket, which was used against London in WWI. When the allies won the war, they confiscated this new technology for their own uses. The Space Race, which came not long afterwards, was a race between the two global superpowers, America and Russia, to send technology into space using the new rockets. NASA was formed to organize America’s space program and to ensure “peaceful exploration of space for the benefit of all humankind.” While modern rockets may seem infinitely better than those of the past, we would not have them without them, and by using past knowledge we can make the rockets of the present even better.

//Ms. Mc: Great summary! Good drawings too. Please refer to your figures in your text (i.e., "as seen in Figure 1"). Nice work! 10/10//

A Simulation of A Rocket Flight to Mars
media type="custom" key="14055554" Instructions to Run Simulations: Turn on sound Click the green flag in the top right corner to start. If simulation doesn't appear, click on the "Learn More about this Project" link above. Click the red circle in the top right corner to stop. To restart the simulation, click the red circle, wait for the program to stop, and then click on the green flag again.

Davis-Great job, really smooth flight, I noticed that flight was spelled "plight" at the beginning, I liked your backgrounds and costumes too

Pranay-Your rocket flight was very clear and your definitions were precise, Caleb. The only thing I thought was a little bit too fast was the rocket's exit off the screen after ejection. But overall, great job! I thought that using different space backgrounds added a lot of interest, too!

Rocket Diagram
There are many parts of the rocket that are necessary for a successful launch, as seen in Figure 1. For example, the nose cone controls the flow of air around the rocket, and the body tube strengthens the rocket and protects the internal parts of the rocket. Additionally, the recovery system, which is a parachute that deploys in order for the rocket to be able to be recovered and reused, and the recovery wadding, which is a flameproof material that protects the recovery system form the heat of the engine and the explosive used to eject the nose cone and recovery system, help to ensure that the rocket can be recovered without damage to the rocket. Two guidance devices, the launch lug, which is a cylinder that controls the direction in which the rocket flies directly after takeoff, and the fins, which are pieces of material at the base of the rocket which cause the rocket to fly straight and in the right direction, ensure that the rocket travels in the correct direction. Finally, the motor mount, a the device that holds the rocket motor, and the rocket motor, a motor which contains the fuel for the rocket, provide the thrust needed for the rocket to lift off from the ground, for the powered flight stage, and for ejection. All of these parts are important and should be a main part of any rocket.

// Ms. Mc: Great definitions and labels! Forgot to label the recovery wadding. 9.5/10 //

The Atlas V-541 Rocket
The Atlas V-541 rocket contains many parts that are necessary for a successful flight to Mars, as seen in Figure 1. Its common core booster carries fuel and oxygen tanks that feed an engine for the ascent and four solid rocket motors which are used to increase the total thrust. It also has a Centaur upper stage which fires twice in order to tell the rocket what to do. The nose cone, or payload fairing, is designed to protect the rover, or payload during its ascent through Earth's atmosphere. The payload, or rover, is what is being carried to Mars in order to explore its surface.

The Atlas V-541 was chosen for this mission for many reasons, including that rockets of similar type have succeeded in carrying similar payloads in the past. It is 191 feet (58 meters) tall with its payload. It also weighs about 1.17 million pounds (531,000 kilograms) when it is fully fueled. This is actually fairly light for a rocket, but the high weight is mostly because of the rocket fuel, which is needed to carry the heavy payload out of Earth's gravitational pull and towards Mars.

//Ms. Mc: very good overview. The Centaur engine get the rocket into Earth's orbit and then launches the cruise vehicle with the rover off to Mars (-1/2). You do not need to include the word "diagram" in your figure title as "figure" imlies that. 9.5/10//

Rocket Launch Lab Analysis and Write-Up
An experiment was performed to test how a rocket’s mass, or the amount of particles within the rocket, affects its apogee, or highest point, of flight. It was hypothesized that a rocket with greater mass will have a lower apogee. This was hypothesized because force equals mass multiplied by acceleration, or change in speed, and the amount of force is constant, so it was concluded that when the mass is increased the acceleration must decrease. It was thought that a rocket with a lower acceleration will travel over less distance with less speed, so it was concluded that a rocket with a greater mass will also need a greater thrust, or propulsion, to go the same height. This was thought because the rocket will need to overcome Earth's gravity while propelling a heavier object, and since the thrust was the same so it was thought that it would go a lesser distance. The rocket was also known to have a greater inertia, or an object’s unwillingness to change its motion, because of its increased mass. The thrust will need to overcome this inertia, and a mass with a greater inertia was thought to need a greater thrust to accelerate, which was thought would use more propellant, or fuel, and therefore leaving less propellant for powered flight, the stage in which the rocket is propelled upwards by the fuel which is being used up, slowing the rocket and causing it to travel a lesser distance.

Some observations were made of the rockets. It was observed that the masses of the nine rockets had a range of 42.8 grams to 45.9 grams. When the rockets were launched, it was observed that their heights had a range of 18.5 meters to 107.2 meters. It was also observed that the rockets with less mass tended to go higher. As seen in Graph #1, it was thought that the data had an inverse relationship, This was thought because Rocket #3, the lightest rocket (with a mass of 42.8 grams), flew the highest (107.2 meters), and Rocket #6, the heaviest rocket (with a mass of 45.9 grams), flew the second lowest (53.2 meters). Rocket #4 was regarded as an outlier and did not fit with the other data points, having a mass of 43.4 grams, but an apogee of only 18.5 meters. It was thought that this may have been because of an error with the angle gun, a device used to calculate the apogee of the rocket. Despite this error, it was concluded that the hypothesis was confirmed because it was seen that rockets with less mass had a greater apogee, as it was hypothesized. Errors may have occurred because of many variables within the experiment and other reasons. Attempts were made to control these variables, including as weather, fin placement, measuring devices, and construction. Additionally there was a small sample size (there were only nine rockets) and a small variability between the masses of the rockets (only 3.1 grams). This may have affected the data and made it more likely for error, which may have affected the results of the experiment.

Rocket Redesign
This fin design, as seen in Figure #1, was chosen because the fins were thought to make the rocket more aerodynamic and reduce drag. The number of fins was also chosen because it was thought that it would also stabilize and balance the rocket without weighing it down.

In the first experiment that was done, the rocket was found to have a mass of 43.8 grams, and in the second experiment that was performed it was found to have a mass of 42.9 grams. Despite this decrease in mass, the rocket only had an apogee, or highest peak of flight, of 15.8 meters, as opposed to the apogee of the first flight, which was 88.5 meters. This drastic change was thought to have occurred due the rocket sharply veering to the left after takeoff, followed by the rocket tumbling through the air before landing. These motions were thought to have occurred because of the shape and size of the fins. Their increase in size, as seen in Figure #1, weighed down the back of the rocket, shifting the center of gravity. Since this center of gravity was now below the center of pressure, it caused the rocket to have an irregular flight path and to tumble through the air. This irregular flight path was what was thought to have affected the apogee of the rocket.

//Ms. Mc: Great diagram and initial thoughts. The CG probably still was above the CP in the second design but the irregular flight path most likely was due to the fact that the air flow would have gotten trapped by the reversed fins and flipped the rocket. 4.5/5//

[[image:cascience7-2012/chn_leonardo_knight.jpg width="167" height="287" caption="Figure #1: Leonardo DaVinci's Robotic Knight"]]


The first robots began to develop in 350 B.C, when the Greek mathematician, Archytas of Tarentum built a mechanical bird that was propelled by steam, one of the earliest automatons. Much later, in 1495, Leonardo DaVinci designed a mechanical device that looks and acts in a way similar to an armored knight, as seen in Figure #1. Similar inventions which were created were used to entertain royalty. In 1738, Jacques de Vaucanson began building automata in Grenoble, France. He built three, including his most famous: a duck which moved, quacked, flapped its wings, and ate and digested food. It was one of the first attempts at what he called "moving autonomy" which is to say that it moved around in a fashion similar to the person or animal it was imitating.

In the year 1801, Joseph Jacquard builds an automated loom that was controlled with punched cards. This technology was later employed in some early 20th century computers. Later, in 1898, Nikola Tesla built a remote controlled boat. This was one of the first uses of a device which could be controlled from a distance, without hindering cords and cables. In 1921, the Czech writer Karel Capek first used the word "Robot" in his play "Rossuum's Universal Robots," and in 1959 John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky started the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT.

In 1962 the first industrial arm robot, named the Unimate was introduced, designed to perform repetitive and dangerous tasks on an assembly line. In 1966, a robot with artificial intelligence known as ELIZA was created at MIT by Joseph Weizenbaum. It can use its user's statements to form questions of its own, and just one year later, Richard Greenblatt wrote, MacHack, a program that plays chess. In 1989 a robot that could walk named Genghis was created by the Mobile Robots Group at MIT, and was known for its walking ability. In 1998 LEGO released their first Robotics Invention System (named MINDSTORMS), which enables younger robotics fans to experiment and to develop skills with robotics. Finally, in Jan. 4th, 2004, the robot Spirit lands on Mars, as seen in Figure #2. Now, robots are used for many things, from space exploration to toys for children. The uses of robotics are almost limitless; it only takes the ingenuity to discover how to employ them.

//Ms. Mc - excellent overview and figures! How are robots primarily used today? (-1/2). I llike how you included the Mars rovers and Mindstorms. 9.5/10//

Summary of Curiosity's Mission and Instruments


The rover Curiosity will be has been given the task of discovering whether there have been conditions on Mars which would have been beneficial towards life, and to find clues about possible life on Mars in the past. Curiosity has many similarities with past rovers, including six wheels, a similar suspension system, and cameras mounted on a pole. However, Curiosity is twice as long and five times as heavy as the largest previous rovers that have been sent to Mars, Spirit and Opportunity. As seen in Figure #1, it also contains tools which enable it to gather samples on Mars and test them inside interior test chambers, unlike any previous rovers sent to Mars. Curiosity is powered by a radioisotope power generator, fueled by the radioactive decay of plutonium-238. This fuels source is expected to last for an entire Martian year, or 687 Earth days. Scientists will communicate with this rover using radio relays carried by Mars orbiters.

As seen in Figure #2, there are many different instruments on the rover with a variety of different purposes. The Sample Analysis at Mars (or SAM) will analyze samples gathered by a robotic arm. CheMin will also analyze samples, designed to identify the minerals in rocks and soils. The Mars Hand Lens Imager will be used to take close up pictures of intricate objects on Mars' surface. The Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer will be used to measure the comparative quantity of elements in rocks and soils on Mars. The Mast Camera will find information which will be used to make decisions on which rocks would be the best subjects for examining with other instruments, such as the ChemCam, which uses laser pulses to remove small layers of material from rocks and other objects. The Radiation Assessment Detector will be used to measure the radiation on the surface of Mars and the Rover Environment Monitoring System will measure various forms of weather and ultraviolent radiation levels. The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) will be used to measure hydrogen beneath the surface of Mars, which may indicate water. The Sample Acquisition/Sample Preparation and Handling System will function as an obstacle-avoidance system and will be used to collect samples from the surface of Mars. Each of these instruments serves an important purpose and will aid Curiosity as it seeks to explore Mars.

//Ms. Mc - Excellent overview! 10/10//

Explanation of "On the Edge" Challenge
media type="file" key="chn_robot_on_edge_challenge.AVI" width="300" height="300" Video #1: A Video of the Robot Completing the "On the Edge" Challenge

The purpose of this challenge was to drive a robot along the length of a table without the robot falling off the side. Both the ultrasonic or light sensors could be used, and there was a black strip of tape along the edge in order to allow the light sensor to pick up a difference in reflected light. The robot had to stop within four centimeters of the edge without falling off, and then say, "Watch out!" How did it start? -1/2



Block 1 - a movement block that tells the robot to stop servomotors B and C to ensure that the robot stops. Block 2 - a waiting block that tells the robot to wait until it detects a sound greater than 50%. What port? -1/2 Block 3 - a movement block that tells the robot to activate servomotors B and C so it moves forward over an infinite distance at 75% power Block 4 - a waiting block that tells the robot to wait until it detects a quantity of reflected light less than 32%. Port? -1/2 Block 5 - a movement block that tells the robot to stop servomotors B and C so the robot brakes. Block 6 - a sound block that tells the robot to play the sound "Watch Out" and 100% volume. Port? Block 7 - a waiting block that tells the robot to wait for one second to give the sound time to finish playing.

Ms. Mc - good job! 18.5/20

Life on Mars?
In 1996, scientists announced that they had found evidence for life in a Martian meteorite. Now, however, it is believed that these claims are untrue because the formations which they said proved that there was life could be constructed without life taking place. In past missions, the main focus has been to follow the path of liquid water, which was one of the requirements for life and one of the least common on Mars. In 2001, the Mars Odyssey conducted neutron measurements which suggested that the polar regions held large quantities of H 2 O ice. In 2003, the rovers Spirit and Opportunity both found evidence of water, including a discovery by Opportunity of minerals which seemed to have been deposited at the shore of a salty body of water. In 2005, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter used an imaging system to take photographs of dark streaks which were thought to be flowing salt water. Finally, in 2008 the probe Phoenix (as seen in Figure #1) found water ice underneath the surface of Mars.

MSL, the current mission to Mars, is going to look for signs of past microbial life, and possibly living microbes (or micro-organisms). A microbe or micro-organism (as seen in Figure#2 ) is an organism which is made up of a single cell or of small cell groups (or clusters). If a sample of something that was similar to life was found, it would then be classified as either alive, dead, non-living, or dormant. Something that is alive has the eight major characteristics of life and performs normal life processes, and something that is dead used to be alive but is no longer alive. Also, something that is dormant is alive but is not active or has physical functions that are slowed or suspended, and something that is non-living has never been alive. All of these classifications are based of the eight characteristics of life, and nothing can be classified as living if it does not have all eight characteristics of life. The eight characteristics are organization (cells), response to stimuli, use of energy, growth/development, and reproduction. (Also, adapts/evolves, homeostasis, and needs materials. -1/2) Applying these eight characteristics, any known organism can be correctly classified as living, dead, dormant, or non-living.

//Ms Mc. - very good summary of the evidence of water from spacecraft explorations of Mars, figures, and discussion of how you would classify a specimen from Mars; 9.5/10.//